Ovarian cancer refers to the abnormal growth of cells in the ovaries — two glands essential for sexual reproduction and women’s health. Ovarian cancer is estimated to affect about 21,000 women in the United States in 2026.In the female anatomy, the ovaries sit on the right and left side of the uterus (womb), and produce eggs (ova) as well as the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. When a woman is fertile, the ovaries release eggs into the fallopian tubes, or passageways to the uterus.Studies have found that for many women, ovarian cancer originates in the fallopian tubes, an important finding for prevention, detection, and treatment strategies.

The ovaries are made up of three types of cells, each of which has the potential to become malignant. They include the following:

1. Epithelial Ovarian Tumors These are the most common type of ovarian tumors and the most likely to be malignant. They develop from cells that cover the outside surface of the ovaries, and can be benign (noncancerous), borderline (low malignant potential), or malignant. The last group, also called carcinomas, accounts for between 85 and 90 percent of all ovarian cancers.

2. Ovarian Germ Cell Tumors These develop in the ova and are usually benign. They are also often called mature cystic teratomas. The malignant kind makes up only 5 percent of all ovarian cancers.

3. Ovarian Stromal Tumors These develop in the structural tissue cells that hold the ovary together and produce estrogen and progesterone. They make up only about 1 percent of all ovarian cancers.

Ovarian cancer is particularly life-threatening because some of its early signs are vague and easy to ignore or blame on other, far less dangerous health conditions. Symptoms often don’t become apparent until the cancer has spread and become difficult to treat.The following are the most common symptoms of ovarian cancer:

• Bloating

• Pelvic or abdominal pain

• Difficulty eating or feeling full too quickly

• Urinary discomfort — unusual urgency or frequency

Ovarian cancer can also cause fatigue, stomach upset, back pain, pain during sex, constipation, changes in the menstrual cycle, and abdominal swelling accompanied by weight loss.If any of these symptoms are persistent and unusual for you, it’s important to discuss them with your doctor. The American Cancer Society recommends that women see a doctor as soon as possible if they experience any of these symptoms more than 12 times in a month.

Medical experts don’t know why certain women develop ovarian cancer and others don’t, or why some ovarian cells become cancerous while others don’t.

Still, scientists have identified several risk factors for epithelial ovarian cancer. Some appear to have a very small impact, while others are more significant. These include:

• Age Your risk increases the older you are, with most ovarian cancers developing after menopause.

• Being Overweight or Having Obesity Research has linked obesity to ovarian cancer, though not necessarily the most life-threatening types.

• Pregnancy After 35 Having your first full-term pregnancy after age 35 or never carrying a child to term increases the risk of ovarian cancer.

• Postmenopause Hormone Therapy Research is mixed, but some studies have found that taking hormone therapy for many years, especially estrogen alone (without progesterone), is associated with increased risk.

• Family History A family history of ovarian cancer, breast cancer, or colorectal cancer raises your risk.

• Genetic Inheritance Among the clearest and most serious risks are certain inherited changes (mutations) in genes, passed down through one’s family. This accounts for 10 to 15 percent of ovarian cancers and is caused most notably by mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes.

• Smoking Smoking hasn’t been shown to raise overall ovarian cancer risk, but it has been linked to an increase in an uncommon type of epithelial tumor called a mucinous carcinoma.

Studies have found that women with the BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene are also at an increased risk of other types of cancers, including breast cancer.Other research has found that those with endometriosis (a condition where endometrial-like tissue grows outside of the uterus) and diabetes have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.

Diagnosing ovarian cancer typically involves a pelvic exam to look for changes that indicate the presence of a tumor. Smaller cancers, however, may not be discovered through a pelvic exam.Imaging tests, such as ultrasound, computerized tomography scans, and positron emission tomography scans, can aid doctors in finding tumors and making an ovarian cancer diagnosis. Analyzing a tissue sample, usually obtained through biopsy (surgery to remove tissue samples for analysis in the lab), is the only way to tell for sure if a mass is cancerous.Staging ovarian cancer means evaluating how extensive it is, in order to come up with the best treatment plan. Staging typically involves a biopsy, where doctors will determine the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread to other places, like the lymph nodes or other tissues and organs.An analysis that factors in all these criteria will arrive at a cancer stage, between 1 (the earliest stage) and 4 (the most advanced), with substages that provide more detail.

Genetic Testing

Genetic testing allows women who believe they are at high risk of ovarian cancer to confirm whether they have inherited a mutation (such as BRCA1 or BRCA2) that makes them especially vulnerable.A genetic counselor can talk about the pros and cons of testing and put any potential findings into context before arranging a laboratory analysis of DNA from a saliva or blood sample.At-home genetic tests are also available and are generally less expensive, but they are not as inclusive or reliable as tests administered by a healthcare professional.

Ovarian cancer poses a specific threat, as it tends to be detected only after it has spread to other parts of the body. In fact, roughly 70 percent of malignant ovarian cancer cases are stage 3 or 4 at the time of diagnosis, meaning they’ve spread to nearby organs or lymph nodes. In general, the later ovarian cancer is diagnosed, the harder it is to treat.While women diagnosed with early stage ovarian cancer have a five-year relative survival rate of about 93 percent, the five-year relative survival rate for all stages is about 50 percent.

The length of time women live with ovarian cancer will depend on the type, stage, treatments, and other factors. Nearly half of women with ovarian cancer are still alive at least five years after being diagnosed with the disease.

If you have ovarian cancer, you’ll likely need to see your doctor frequently for follow-up visits and tests.

Ovarian cancer treatment almost always starts with surgery. Most women who are diagnosed with ovarian cancer will have an operation to remove the tumor, or at least as much of it as possible.If the cancer is diagnosed early, the operation may be limited to the removal of the ovaries and fallopian tubes, a procedure called a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, as well as the uterus (a hysterectomy). Depending on the cancer and the stage, some women who want to preserve their fertility may be able to keep one ovary and fallopian tube, and their uterus.

More extensive surgery may be necessary for cancers that have spread, assuming the patient is healthy enough to withstand it. Surgery is important for staging the cancer, determining how advanced it is, selecting the best treatment, and making a prognosis.

Medication Options

Post-surgery, many patients are treated with numerous rounds of chemotherapy, which involves administering drugs (typically two used in combination) that kill cancer cells. Sometimes, patients will receive chemotherapy before and after surgery, to first shrink the tumor before it is surgically removed. Except for early stage cancers, chemotherapy is almost always part of the treatment plan.For advanced ovarian cancers, doctors may also turn to targeted therapy. This type of next-generation medication works by homing in on specific characteristics of the cancer cells, disrupting their inner workings and causing them to die, while sparing healthy cells.For instance, the targeted drug bevacizumab (Avastin) attacks cancer by targeting a protein in malignant cells that enables them to form new blood vessels they need to grow.

Alternative and Complementary Therapies

Some women with ovarian cancer turn to alternative therapies in conjunction with traditional treatment to ease symptoms and side effects. Common therapies include:

• Acupuncture

• Massage

• Meditation

• Yoga

• Herbs or oils

Always talk to your doctor before trying an alternative treatment.

Additionally, patients with ovarian cancer may benefit from palliative care. This approach can provide relief from the physical and emotional impacts of cancer. Palliative care can be given along with standard cancer treatments. When combined with appropriate therapies, people who choose palliative care may feel better and live longer.

Scientists continue to look for ways to reduce a woman’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. For now, they have identified two protective factors:

• Pregnancy and Breastfeeding Women who become pregnant before age 26 and carry to term are at lower risk, with each subsequent full-term pregnancy diminishing the risk further. Breastfeeding has an effect too, perhaps because it prevents ovulation. The risk of cell mutation, which can lead to cancer, is greater the more you ovulate.

• Birth Control Women who have used oral contraceptives are at lower risk. So are women who’ve had a tubal ligation (had their fallopian tubes tied) or used an intrauterine device for a short time. Women who’ve had a hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) also see their ovarian cancer risk drop by a third.

Women with ovarian cancer may experience complications related to treatments or the disease itself. Some common complications include:

• Fatigue or weakness

• Gastrointestinal side effects

• Edema (excess fluid buildup)

• Ascites (collections of fluid in the abdominal cavity)

• Anemia (low blood cell counts)

• Bowel or bladder obstruction

• Nutritional problems

• Pleural effusion (a buildup of fluid between the thin membranes that line the lungs and the inside of the chest cavity)

The number of women diagnosed with and dying from ovarian cancer has significantly decreased over the past 40 years.A report published in 2018 found that rates declined 29 percent between 1985 and 2014, and the number of deaths decreased 33 percent between 1976 and 2015.In 2025, it was estimated that 20,890 new cases of ovarian cancer would be diagnosed, and 12,730 women would die from the disease in the United States.Ovarian cancer accounts for only 1 percent of all cancers diagnosed in women, making it relatively rare, yet it is responsible for 2 percent of all cancer-related deaths in women.

While, statistically speaking, ovarian cancer primarily affects white women, Hispanic, American Indian and Alaskan Native, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Black women can be diagnosed with it too.Although there have been advances in treatments, not all racial groups have benefited equally when it comes to survival. For instance, between 1975 and 2016, the five-year survival rate for ovarian cancer increased from 33 percent to 48 percent in white women but decreased from 44 percent to 41 percent in Black women.Though the exact causes for these disparities aren’t known, some evidence has suggested that socioeconomic factors, such as access to healthcare, may play a role. Researchers are currently conducting studies to try to understand more about why this discrepancy exists.

• Ovarian cancer is a type of reproductive cancer that affects about 21,000 women in the United States each year. There are several different types of ovarian cancer, with the most common being epithelial ovarian tumors.

• Age, obesity, family history, and genetic mutations (such as the BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation) increase your risk of developing ovarian cancer. However, certain types of birth control, quitting smoking, and breastfeeding after pregnancy could help reduce your risk.

• Ovarian cancer is difficult to diagnose and often isn’t detected until it’s reached stage 3 or 4 and has spread to other organs. It’s primarily detected through imaging tests and biopsies.

• The treatment of ovarian cancer involves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted medications to remove and reduce tumors. An oncologist will help determine the best course of treatment based on the cancer severity.